IV. The Fostering of Social Well-Being

Castles should he erected to afford protection hut also to increase the heauty of the Spanish cities. Magnificent churches and other public buildings will add to the glory of the king and of the nation. By way of example, Mariana describes at length the marvelous church of the Escorial, which is a wonderful monument to Spain's greatness and an eloquent witness to Philip Irs magnificence. He spares neither space nor eloquence to pay tribute to his king for this accomplishment which will he for all times an im pressive reminder of the great Pyrenean monarchy. 1 In the same way, private citizens should take pride in erecting heautiful homes which will adorn the cities like gems and he the glory of the inhahitants. The suhurhs and the river hanks ought to he covered with magnificent huildings to 1 Quam laudem nostra aetate Philippus secundus Hispaniae Rex maximus habeat necesse est, tum ob alia tota provincia aedificia, arces, villas superbo structurae genere, sed praesertim ins ana atque regia substructione ejus templi quod a Laurentio Martyre nomen habet. Cujus si formam, spatia, partes explicarem, opere pretium me facturum putabam. • • • De Rege, Lib. III, cap. 10, p. 287.

103 MARIANA:-POUTICAL ECONOMY please the eye, to give rest and recreation from hard work, and to restore strength and energy for new undertakings. 1 This improvement would be better for individuals and also for the whole people than spending large sums of money for vanities, rich food or harmful pleasure, to no advantage but rather to the ruin of the profligates. This last remark indicates how Mariana believes the funds for these undertakings can be secured. If the rich ab stained from extravagance in food, dress and recreation, heaps of money could be obtained for the benefit of the poor, the erection of hospitals and other public buildings. The example of the king in building should inspire the nobles and the rich to vie with him in magnificence. Other nations, by far less prosperous than Spain, are doing won ders in architecture. Why, then, should it not divert a part of the enormous treasures which flow to it every year from the Indies to the erection of noble structures? King Solo mon obtained fame by building the magnificent temple in Jerusalem and numberless cities and castles throughout his kingdom. Augustus boasted of having changed Rome from a brick town into a marble city. And Philip II of Spain has followed their example and made himself immortal through the many magnificent structures he has erected all over the country, notably the wonderful Escurial.

Mariana is ashamed to say that the Roman roads in Spain are in miserable shape, and that bridges and town walls are collapsing everywhere because of the carelessness and inertia of the people. He would wish to see all unstable structures of earth and woodwork replaced by solid stone lAddantur aedificia privata, aedes que elegantes, et ornatae, quibus oppida quasi gemmis aurum distinguantur et niteant .... Ager suburbanus omnis villis exaedificatus, omni ex parte colluceat. Sequantur fluviorum ripas, locorum aliorum amoenitates. Quae omnia non ad hauriendas nimias voluptates, quod noxium est, referenda sunt: sed praeter ornatum ut altern a requie civium animi vegetiores ad virtutum studia efficiantur: captoque honesto otio ad negotiosam vitam promptiores revertantur, taedio civili procurato. De Rege, Lib. III, cap. 10, p. 285-86. 104 SOCIAL WELL-BEING walls, to please the eye and to avoid the danger of collapse.

We may divine our author's ideal of city life when we read the following description of the heavenly Jerusalem in De Morte et Immortalitate: "Imagine in the spirit only a city where there are no needy, no sick; where all are clad in gold; all wise; where you see no huts of straw and woodwork, hut each dwelling appears like a palace." 1 This description, though idealistic, shows what Mariana had in mind when he wrote his chapters on buildings and public charities. Mariana surely was a friend of the people and above all of the poor. His suggestions regarding buildings and works of art show that he was a true Spaniard, animated by high ideals, inspired by great things and eager to impress the world with the glory of his nation. Here we scarcely recog nize the austere ascetic who always exhorts his readers to practice simplicity of life and manners. But though he is an out and out democrat who hates all flattery and the ceremonies of the Court, he is a genuine aristocrat when Spain's glory is at stake. He does not begrudge people the comfort of beautiful homes. He wants every citizen to be proud of his native town and to do all in his power to make it a magnificent place.

The austere moralist is evidenced so much the more strongly, however, when our author discusses the topic of public recreations. About that time, theatres and show houses began to he erected all over Spain and the plays were not always free from objectionable characteristics. Religious celebrations and even processions gave rise to plays which were sometimes of a rather questionable character. Churches were used for religious and sometimes, unfortu1 Fingite tantum animo urbem ubi nulli egeni, nulli aegroti, omnes in aureis vestibus, omnes ~apientes, nullae casae paleis constructae et ramalibus. sed aedes singulae regiarum instar." De Marte et Immortalitate, Lib. III, cap. 1, p. 420. 105 MARIANA:-POLITICAL ECONOMY nately, immoral shows. All this arouses the indignation of the author of De Spectaculis. He sees nothing in the theatre but an occasion of sin and an incitement to immorality.l He considers it blasphemous to celebrate religious festivals with shows; the performances of actors in churches will draw upon the people the wrath of God Almighty, while the spread of regular theatres will increase the number of un productive and idle people whose only business it is to corrupt the people and to draw money from their pockets.

Mariana speaks in the strongest terms against the stage in general, and would have it removed altogether. He admits that some will object and say that the theatre yields a large revenue to the State and greatly increases the funds for public charity. He replies that it is immoral to derive advantage from a thing bad in itself, and that it is a fallacy to call the theatre a source of public revenue. If theatre directors are forced to pay a high tax, they will endeavor in every way to get their money back by increas ing the number of shows and by charging higher entrance fees. They will thus draw people from their homes and work, and will employ an ever growing number of actors who must he withdrawn from productive trades. 2 Sons and daughters of respectable parents will devote themselves to this objectionable profession, which practice will help to corrupt and emasculate young men and make them unfit for war.

1 Quid enim conti net scena, nisi virgin urn stupra, et amores prostituti pudoris foeminarum lenonum artes atque lenarum, ancillarum et servorum fraudes versibus numerosis et ornatis explicata, sententiarum luminibus distincta. eoque tenacius memoriae adhaerentia, quarum rerum ignoratio multo commodior est. Histrionum impudici motus et (festus, fractaeque in foeminarum modum voces, quibus impudicas mulieres imitantur et expnmunt, quid aliud nisi ad libidinem inflammant homines per se et ad vitia satis proclives? De Spectaculis, cap. i, p. 128. 2 Alterum est frequentiores fore ludas perpetua sede publice designata, quam omnino sit opus alliciente ad ludendum spectandumque loci oP1?ortunitate, et praefectus cum magna domum earn aut theatrum conduxerit, histriones undlque conqui rat necesse est, nullumque diem elabi sine ludo patiatur, diebusque noctes continuet, quod magna pernicies esset. • • • Opifices et agrestes, quorum res fidesque in manibus sitae sunt, relicto opere quotidiano frequentabunt ea loea, quanta cum calamitate familiae dicere non attinet, res ipsa loquitur, 106 SOCIAL WELL-BEING The defenders of the stage will say that people want these shows, that they need relaxation from their toil and that recreation will make them more fit for future work.

Mariana replies that the people will get no benefit from being corrupted at the theatre, and that one never can fight evil by making concessions. Moreover, shows on Sundays and feast-days of obligation will keep people from Mass. Mariana realizes nevertheless that he will not succeed in having the theatre suppressed altogether. His real hope is to have a number of safeguards applied. 1 A strict censor shi p should be exercised by men not less than fifty years old. No women should be allowed to appear on the stage, either in masculine or feminine dress. Never should a play house be erected from public means, nor must any revenue be hoped for in this way. Shows must not take place during Lent or on great feast-days. Shows in churches ought not to be tolerated, nor should the drama be connected at all with religious festivals. Minors must be prohibited from attending shows. Supervisors, paid for by the actors, should watch the performances and should have ample power to remove all that is scandalous and to punish immodest con duct. Actors should be merely tolerated by the State, which finds that the people want them and cannot be prevailed upon to do without them.

In no less vigorous terms, Mariana denounces public houses. He knows that the Church has always tolerated them, in accordance with the statement of St. Augustine "that if you take away the prostitute women you will disturb everything with lust." 2 Mariana rejects this toleration of what theologians call a necessary evil. He believes that it eo amplius quod otio et desidiae deditos ad laborem revocare si yetis, nae tu multum laborabis, neque tamen muItum proficies. De Spectaculis, cap. 9, p. 148. 1 Ibid., cap. 15, pp. 166-168. II Aufer meretrices de rebus human is, turbaveris omnia libidinibus. De S pectaculis, cap. l6, p. 168, 107 MARIANA:-POUTICAL ECONOMY is merely a remnant of paganism, which Christianity has not as yet been able to suppress. He is inclined to think that the reason why theologians do not dare oppose this evil is the fact that St. Augustine tolerated it. He even declares his agreement with the Hussites, who opposed this shameful practice, and remarks that this thesis of theirs was not condemned by the Council of Constance. If the Jews were not allowed to tolerate public houses, how much less ought Christians to put up with them! St.· Louis of France prohibited them, Mariana points out, but is honest enough to say that the result was not very. satisfactory and that they were reintroduced shortly afterwards. He does not admit that it will raise the standard of morality or diminish the danger of immorality if concessions are made in this respect. It only will give people of the lower classes a chance to sin more easily, since people of the higher classes will not go to these places. Concupiscence is not only not checked by indulgence but rather grows stronger, in the same way as fire is fostered by supplying new fuel.

1 There fore the only remedy will be complete removal of the public houses. Our author takes from experience another argu ment to the effect that public houses are an inducement to modest girls to lose their innocence. Many country girls were good as long as they lived in places where there were no such dangers, but were corrupted when they came to the large cities. Not even the national entertainment of the Spaniards, the bull fights, find grace with Mariana. 2 He believes that they are a remnant of the Roman gladiatorial fights and are unbecoming to Christians. They are cruel entertain ments and contradict Christian meekness and modesty. The 1 Non ergo indulgendo libidini medemur, sed earn amplius inflammamus, non minus quam si igni materiam addas. De Spectaculis, cap. 16, p. 170. 2 Ibid., cap. 20, pp. 178·181. 108 SOCIAL WELL-BEING Church had forhidden them for some time under penalty of excommunication, hut the Pope withdrew this censure after Philip II had urged that they fostered courage and boldness among young men. Mariana will not admit this educational influence, hut maintains that they rather teach the young men cowardice, showing them how to avoid dan ger. When the Pope yielded to King Philip's importunity, he made the reservation that no danger to life be involved in these fights. This precaution, Mariana declares, has never heen observed.

If, then, our author denounces all plays and public en tertainments customary in Spain, what kind of recreation is he willing to allow the people? The answer is that he would like best if they would do without all earthly enter tainments and find their only delight in things heavenly.l It is surprising that the man who always showed so much common sense betrays here an absolute ignorance of the world as it is and of human nature, which needs occasional relaxation and, if denied it, will seek it anyway, even un lawfully. Here Mariana is the austere ascetic who is severe with himself but forgets that he should he kind and chari table to his neighbors. He quotes as his model Tertullian the man who fell away from the Church on account of his rigidity, helieving as he did that the reception of sinners after they had relapsed into their sins had been made too easy. The only amusements that Mariana is willing to grant the people are military games, fighting, shooting and the old Spanish dances. 2 The people will he entertained hy these lHaee Tertullianus, pluraque in hane sententiam, ut Christianis hominibus persuadeat ineorporeas voluptates suffieere, quae ex rerum divinarum fruetu et contemplatione atque naturae spectaculo percipiuntur uberrimae. De Spectaculis, cap. 25, p. 187.

I Quod quoniam magna ex parte abjecimus, ne nimium severi et rigidi videamur, neque mores nostros antiquae disciplinae pares esse quis contend at, alias obleetationes dabimus, sed neque obscenas neque noxias. Concur rant inter se equites, peditesve ludicro certamine in justae pugnae modum cum singulis singuli, aut facto agmine. Cursis juvenes, lucta, 109 MARIANA:-POLITlCALECONOMY and the young men exercise themselves in the game of war without running any moral danger or being enervated and made unfit for campaign life. This last point is stressed numberless times in Mariana's works. He knows from Spanish history that Spain grew great by her wars with the Moors, and that she can preserve her prestige only by fol lowing in the footsteps of those old Spanish knights who won the admiration of the world with marvels of bravery. But now, Mariana mournfully remarks, Spain has lost the spirit of her heroes. Her power and riches have emasculated the people. When they were surrounded by enemies, they were defeated by no one; now, when they have conquered the world, they are being defeated by vices and ease. The nobles who were knighted on account of their bravery have now degenerated: they are going about in soft garments, feeding on sugar and wine and soft meats. Spain's wars are being fought by well-paid mercenaries and the Spanish youth are leading an idle and soft life. Spain's fortresses are moldering, her town walls need repairs, but her sons enjoy themselves in dancing, feasting and immoral plays, neglecting altogether fighting, shooting and the martial ex ercises which foster hravery and warlike spirit. As a result Spain, formerly renowned for bravery and chivalry., is being defeated hy her enemies and is losing her world power.

1 jactuque certent, praemiis etiam victoribus propositis ad accedendum certamen. Inter se exequis jaculentur Mauricae pugnae genere, qua alterius agminis pars magno impetu prim urn procurrit, missisque in adversarios arundinibus, jaculorum imagine, pedem referunt ceduntque prementibus adversariis, quos excipit pars altera agminis quasi in subsidiis relicta, hanc ex adversa parte alii, ludus sic continuatur, quae sunt omnia bellorum imitationes et imagines viribus corporis exercendis idonea dexteritateque comparanda .••• Addantur tripudia more Hispanico choreae, tibiae et tympani sonitum pedum pulsu modulante. Ibid. 1 • • • ya con su peso y grandeza trabaja Espana y se va a tierra. . • • Demas desto, la envidia que las otras naciones nos tienen es grande, nacida ciertamente de la grandeza y mojestad ..•• Grandes son estos peligros. c!quien 10 niega? quien no 10 ve? pero 10 que mas temo es a los vicios y torpezas (los cuales como hecho un escudron han con spriado) que no acarreen la muerte a los mismos que los siguen .•••Muchas provincias y gentes han sido subjetadas • • . y las armas de los espaiioles no conocidas antes, 'han alcanzado grande gloria: muchas riquezas con eI trato de las Indias y navegaeiones de cada ano se han traido; oro, plata y piedras preciosas sin numero y sin medida; pero los mesmos hemos sido derribados de los vicios domesticos. Contra los Juegos publicos, cap. 26. (ed.

Rivadeneyra, Vol. 31, pp. 459-460.) 110 SOCIAL WELL-BEING The remark may explain why Mariana speaks so strongly against the theatre and other popular entertainments. He wants to revive among the Spanish youth the old warlike and chivalrous spirit, so incompatible with a soft and effem inate life. Not enervated young men will restore the old glory of Spain, but brave and bold soldiers who have been trained in all the arts of war, who have learned to bear toil and privation with equanimity, and whose lives are free from all blame. If we bear this in mind, Mariana seems less rigorous in his demands. As a matter of fact, the Spanish stage in those days was very immoral, and Gonzalez de la Calle tells us that our author was right in denouncing it. Moreover, he did not attempt to do away with all plays, (he considers this impossible) and his project for purifying the stage is reasonable and feasible.

III Chapter V Puhlic Charities W HEN Mariana's views of private property were de veloped, it was said that he strongly insists on the duty of charity on the part of the rich, and maintains that the State may, if necessary, enforce this social obligation. He believes it is one of the foremost duties of the king to succor the needy, to support orphans and to aid all who need assistance. The beauty and necessity of charity are discussed very eloquently, as we have intimated. "The greatest gain is derived from riches when one does not use them solely for one's own pleasure hut for the benefit of many; not for one's own gratification in this life hut for that righteousness which alone will· never pass away. It is a really humane duty to open to everyone the store houses of nature which God wished to be common to all, because he gave to all the earth to hring forth grain and food for the indiscriminate use of all living creatures." 1 But unfortunately the avarice of a powerful few soon claimed as private property what had been intended to serve the many. God did not object to this innovation, as it would seem from what Mariana tells us, hut He imposed upon the rich the ohligation of setting aside a part of their property for the support of the poor, because it was still 1 Hie divitiarum maximus et verissimus fructus est, non uti opibus ad propriam uniu!