VIII. Social Beneficence

CHAPTER VIII. SOOIAL BENEFIOENOE. § 459. Is each person under obligation to carryon social intercourse? ~Iay he, without any disregard of claims upon him, lead a solitary life, or a life limited to the family circle? Or does Positive Beneficence ,dictate the cultivating of friendships and acquaintanceships to the ex tent of giving and receiving hospitalities? And if there is such a requirement, yvhat constitutes proper discharge of it ~ Only vague replies to these questions seem possible.' We may indeed say that, peremptory clairns permitting, some alnount of social intercourse is obligatory; since, without it, general happiness would fall short. If a com lnunity of solitaries, or of families leading recluse lives, would be relatively dull-if gatherings for the interchange of ideas and mutual excitation of emotions add, in consid siderable measure, to the gratification~ of each and all; then there seems to be imposed on each the duty of further ing such gatherings.

Of course this duty is less perelnptory than most other duties; and 'when it can be fulfilled must be fulfilled in subordination to them. Receptions entailing appreciable cost have no ethical sanction w-here there is difficulty in meeting family-claims, the claims ·of justice, and the claims arising from the luisfortunes of the worthy. Here that kind of social intercourse which Inay be carried on withou~ (395) 396 THE ETHICS OF SOCIAL LIFE. expense (often the best social intercourse) is alone ethically enjoined. ltloreover, such obligation to cultivate the society of our fellows as beneficence ilnposes, it iIuposes only on condition that more pleasure than pain is caused. No countenance is given by it to the mechanical process of gathering and dispersing, carried on by those who are" in society," or in the wider circles which adopt the habits of society. Beneficence tells no one to help in keeping up the lnovement of "the social treadmill." Only supposing that the persons brought together, derive from one another's company amounts of enjoYlnent well purchased by the en tailed trouble and cost, can beneficence be said to dictate the bringing of thelu together.

And here, indeed, it nlay be said that instead of en joining mechanical social intercourse, beneficence dictates efforts to restrict and abolish it. Everyone finds that most of the entertainments people give and attend, fail to . yield the gratifications sought, while they involve troubles and vexations to hosts and guests: all because display and conforlnity to conventional requirernents are far more thought of than the pleasu'res of friendship. ltlany have found, too, that most endeavours to re-establish the reality, at present supplanted by the shaIn, are futile. Some who, early in the century, desiring to have occasional visits from people they cared about, notified that they would be "at home" on speci~ed evenings, hoped by this abandon ment of formalities to get what they wanted. But as fast as the practice spread, the "at-homes" became conven tionalized, like all other gatherings; and now are not dis tinguishable froln the "routs" of earlier days. The like has happened even with a luore recently-attenlpted remedy, -the "at-homes" which-are distinguished as "slnall and early;" for a srnall and early party has now come to mean one which consists of a roorn. full of people who arrive between 10 and 11.

SOOIAL BENEFIOENOE. 397 Social beneficence, then, does not include ',participation in these kinds of social intercourse which lose the ailn in the preparation, and the actuality in the show. Contrariwise, it enjoins unceasing resistance to a systeru which achieves pain while' seeking pleasure. § 460. Though the furthering of ordinary social inter course of the genuine kind, will by lnany scarcely be classed under b~neficence, there is another kind of social intercourse the furthering of which they will not hesitate so to class. I refer to the intercourse between those whose social positions are superior and those who hold inferior social positions. A.t all times there has been more or less of this-,-in old days occasional feasts provided by feudal nobles for their retainers; and in later times entertainments given by squires to villagers at recurring periods, or on special occasions. After an interval during which such usages seem to have become less general, they have revived in new forITIs-garden parties at country residences to the neighbo~ring poor people; gratis excursions of children and others from London into the country; village school treats, and so forth. Penny Readings" too, and concerts given by amateurs to listeners who are asked to pay little or nothing, are other forms taken by this species of social beneficence. They are in the main to be applauded; both for the immediate pleasures they give, and for their effects in cultivating good feeling between classes, "with consequent increase of social cohesion. Usuany they are genuine promptings of sympathy; and, in the better among those who are' entertained, evoke SOlne gratitude: both results being beneficial. Only in cases where the usage becomes mechanical-is given by routine on the one side and ex pected as a matter of course on the other, may we recog nize a drawback. A.nd only, in other cases, where such entertainments are got up in the interests of religious 398 THE ETHICS OF SOCIAL LIFE.

sects to gather adherents, may we recognize a further drawback. But the drawbacks are not greater, nor so great, as those attendant on the intercourse of the wealthier with one another; and we may safely say that social beneficence enjoins these various modes of bringing rich and poor together. Not less to be approved, if not indeed luore to be ap proved, are the efforts lnade by some to give instruction, as well as pleasure, to fellow citizens who are not so well off as themselves. Those who, a century ago, strove to dissipate the ignorance of artizans and labourers by Sun day Schools, deserve far more to be remembered than many whose names are familiar; and the tens of thousands of the middle classes who, for generations after, devoted large parts of their Sundays to teaching-bearing for Inany years the reprobation of those who considered them .. selves their "betters "-ought to be remembered with gratitude: with much lnore gratitude than those who have busied themselves to coerce people into giving and receiving Board-School lessons. Though this Sunday School systeln, spreading first anlong the Dissenters and then adopted by the Ohurch to prevent loss of its members, has been in part subordinated to sectarian purposes; yet the original aim ,vas good, and the self-sacrificing flllfiIrnent of the aim has been in the main good. Social beneficence has been in this way well exemplified.

Voluntary teaching of another kind has in recent days taken a serviceable developITlent. I refer to lectures given in towns and villages by non-professional lecturers. Sometimes eITlployer and employed are thus associated in a way other than by business-contracts. A late friend of mine, the number of whose work-people exceeded a thousand, besides occasional entertainlnents and excursions into the country, gave theln from time to tinle explanatory accounts of various classes of physical phenomena, with illustrative experiInents. But whether by a master to SOCI.AL BENEFICENCE. 399 his hands, or by SOlne local man, "rho has cultivated a specialty, to an asseillblage of his neighbours, this grati8. yielding of information is a beneficence to be cOInmended. Especially does there need volunteered teaching in respect of topics touching the conduct of life and social affairs. The state of society might now have been far better had men capable of doing it, enlightened those living around them on political and moral questions.

}Iany wild ideas now prevailing would probably never have arisen. But in all cases customs tend to becomelaws~concessions to beconle rights; and these extensions of social intercourse giving instruction, as "Tell as those giving pleasure, are apt to lose the quality of beneficence and fall into settled ob servances accolllpaniedby little kindness on the one side or thanks on the other. How to prevent this usual decadence it is difficult to see. . § 461. Thus far the requirements of social beneficence specified, if not practically fulfilled by readers, will be theoretically adnlitted by them. But 'we come now to less obvious requirements~requiren1ents which, indeed, will by most be denied, and by ITlany will even be consid sideredat variance with social obligations. I refer to actions which have for their ends to change habits and usages that are opposed to general wen-being. Though they do not contend that conformity to con ventions is a moral duty, yet the majority of people think it a duty; and they speak in reprobation of those who break any of the! rules which society has tacitly enacted for the regulation of .life and behaviour. They may be unable to give good reasons for tllese rules; they may admit that many of them entail trouble and annoyance for no beneficial purpose; they may even condemn some as absurd. Yet they hold that these rules, even down to the colour of an evening neck-tie, should be respected.

400 THE ETHICS OF SOCIAL LIFE. While they regard disobedience as a transgression to be fro,vned upon, they do not ask whether the observance does not entail grave evils, and whether they ought not to try and abolish those evils. One who does not pick up his opInIons ready made, but elaborates them himself, will see clearly enough that along with other duties to his fellowmen, there goes the duty of seeking to increase their happiness by rationalizing their rrlodes of life. He will see that beneficence, rightly understood, is not limited to the giving of money, the yielding of assistance, the manifestation of sympathy, the uttering of kind words; but that it includes also the doing of various things 'which, though proximately painful to others, are remotely beneficial to. them; and which, instead of bringing him slniles, bring him frowns. In a degree far beyond what the Inass of people conceive, their lives are vitiated by observance of the regulations-many needless and others injurious-imposed by an unseen social power. Let us contemplate some of the mischievous man dates which should be disobeyed.

§ 462. Naturally there rnay be taken first in order those ·which concern dress. To denounce here the follies of fashion is superfluous: everyone recognizes them. Noone however, or scarcely anyone, refuses to join in them. Not only do nearly all conform, but they defend their conformity. They laugh at the Juodes exhibited in old books of costume, and adIllit that were it not for habit they might think the current modes equally absurd. The needless expenditure entailed by discarding dresses which are still good, because they are no longer as is required, they recognize and evenlaluent. They also complain occasionally of the amount of time and trouble and worry entailed by keeping their clothing up to date. N everthe less the assertion that, alike on their own behalf and on behalf of others, they ought to resist a dictation which SOCIAL BENEFICENCE. 401 brings these tnischievous results, they combat and even ridi.

cule. Social beneficence, as conceived by them, includes S11bluission rather than resistance. Doubtless they may plead lack of courage. They dare not risk the deprecations of friends and the jeers of strangers. But, in the first place, the bearing of disagreeable conse quences of right actions, is one of the forms which benefi cence takes; and, in' the second place, when a noncollforIn ity which is intrinsically rational, obviously results neither from ignorance nor poverty but from independence, the world generally accepts the situation, and not only tolerates it but even secretly respects it. Concerning .dress, social beneficence has something more to say than to enjoin resistance to these perpetual changes froin one absurd pattern to another. Beyond an improper obedience to an illegitimate control of dress, there is an undue regard for dress itself, considered apart from fashion. Here, again, protest is superfluous; since large expenditure of money and time in providing-ex ternals which shall evoke applause, is a stock subject for reprobation. What needs, perhaps, to be .emphasized is the truth that undue devotion of' life and thought to the gaining of admiration by personal adornment, often brings loss of adrniration. The feeling with which an over dressed WOlnan.is regarded, shows this in a pronounced way; and this feeling is excited, if less strongly, by many who are not condemned as over-dressed. For any such elaborate toilette as shows the beholder that desire for approbation has been dominant, causes in him a reactive eIIlotion: disapproval of the moral trait being set against approval of the appearance achieved. Nobody thinks love of praise a fine characteristic.

To be beautiful without manifest cost, elegant without Inanifest thought, is that which dress should aGhieve. Such attention to appearance as implies a certain respect for those around is proper; and yet not an attention which ilnplies, 402 THE ETHICS· OF SOCIAL LIFE. great anxiety about their opinions. A dash of resthetic genius, possessed by but few, is requisite for success in this compromise. But it may be approached by others; and the approach to it should be aided and approved by that social beneficence which aims at. rationalizing social usages. § 463. Allied to the undue regard for appearance in clothing is the undue regard for appearances in general. Time, aUlong the women of the upper and n1iddle ranks, is largely, and often mainly, spent in pursuit of the orna lnental. To lnake things look pretty seeII1S to have become with them the chief end of life; and they never ask 'whether there is any proper limit to resthetic gratifications.

As was pointed out in the closing chapter of Part III, very luuch in the right conduct of life turns on a due proportioning of the various activities. Recognizing in a measure an ancient doctrine, we saw that concerning each kind of activity, judgment has to decide where abouts between the two extrelnes lies the mean. And we also saw that, beyond this, judgment is called for to decide what .is the proper ratio between each kind of activity and other kinds of activity. In contemplating the doings of people around, we see that this due pro portioning is very little attended to; and, indeed, by many there seeins to be no perception that it is needed. Here in respect of work, there in respect of amusement, now in respect of culture, and again in respect of a hobby, there is undue absorption of energy; and no one seelns to pause and ask whether the pursuit of their particular aim does not unduly sacrifice the pursuit of other aims. It is espe cially thus \vith the pursuit of beauty, or that which is thought to be beauty. Into many minds, and especially feminine Ininds, there seems never to have entered the question whether the spending of tirne over ornamental surroundSOCIAL BENEFICENCE. 403 ings may not be carried to excess. The tacit assumption is that achievement of the elegant·· and the decorative everywhere and always,is meritorious; and the consequent neglect of important ends is not recognized. In a degree ,,"hich examination proves to be extreme, the mind is per verted and the body injured by this insane subordination of reality to show. While many things needful for satis factory Iiving are left undone, the mistress of the house spends much· of her tilue in fancy work, in keeping ornamental things in order, in arranging flowers, &c.: much more tirne than· she gives to procuring food of good quality and ·well cooked, and to superintending the edu cation of her children. * Not only is all this to be ethically disapproved as putting the less important ends of life before the nlore important ends, but it is even to be resthetically disap proved. The pursuit of beauty carried to excess defeats itself. In the first place 11lany domestic objects are not * For these many years I have wished to write an essay on lEsthetic Vices, and have accumulated illustrations of the way in which life is vitiated by making attractiveness of appearance a primary end, instead of a secondary end to be thought of only in subordination to usefulness.

Here are a few out of multitudinous illustrations of the ways in which comfort and health are alike perpetually trenched on to achieve some real or fancied beauty in a thing which should make no pretentions to beauty. You take up a poker to break a lump of coal, and find that the ornamented brass handle, screwed on to the steel shaft, is loose, making the poker rickety; and you further find that the filagree work of this brass handle hurts your hand if you give the lump a blow. Observing that the fire is low you turn to the coal-scuttle, and, perceiving it to be empty, ring for more coal; and then, because the elegant coal-scuttle, decorated perha.ps with a photograph surrounded by ela.borate gilding, may not be damaged in the cellar, you are obliged to hear the noise of pouring in coal from a black scuttle outside the door, accompanied by the making of dust and probably the scattering of bits: all which you are expected to be content with for the sake of the photograph and the gilding. 'rhen, when you sit down, after having put the fire in order, some discomfort at the back of your head draws your attention to a modern antimacassar, made of stdng which is hardened by starch: the beauty of its pattern being supposed to serve you as compensation for the irrita.tion of Jour scalp. So is it with a meal. At breakfast you are served with toast made from bread of an un64 404 THE" ETHICS OF SOCIAL LIFE.

fit for decoration. Between an elaborately-ornamented coul-scuttle and its black, dirty contents, there is an absurd incongruity; and the time spent in lllaking inlitation leaves and flowers to cover a pie-crust, stands in ridiculous contrast with the trivial result: the crust being destroyed nearly as soon as seen. A large propor tion of things in a house should be simply unobtrusive or inoffensi vee In the second place, if beauty is aimed at only in objects which exist exclusively for it as their end, and in other permanent objects which may be made beautiful without diminishing their usefulness, there re," sults an increased totality of resthetic pleasure; for, to be fully appreciated, beautiful things must have as their foils things ,vhich lnake no pretentions to beauty. A graceful statuette, or a fine water-color landscape, looks far better amid surroundings that are relatively plain and inconspicuous, than in a room crowded with nlultitudinous pretty things or things supposed to be pretty. Moreover desirable quality, but which has the advantage that its slices can be cut into triangles, much admired for their neatness. If you take a poached egg you discover that, for the sake of looking pretty, it has been cooked in shallow water; with the effect that while the displayed yolk in the centre is only half done, the surrounding white is over-done and reduced to a leathery con sistence. Should the meal be a more elaborate one you meet with more numerous illustrations. To name the sweets only, you observe that here is a tart of which the crust is bad, because the time that should have been devoted to making it has been devoted to making the filagree work decor ating its outside; and here is another of which the paste, covered with a sugared glaze, has been made close and indigestible by the consequent keeping in of the steam. At one end of the table is a jelly which, that it may keep the shape of the elegant mould it was cast in (which the proper material often fails to do) is artificially stiffened; so that if you are unwise enough to take a mouthful, it suggests the idea of soluble india-rubber. And then at the other end, you see the passion for ap pearance carried to the extent that to make a shaped cream attractive, it is colored with the crimson juice of a creature which, when alive, looks like a corpulent bug. Such is the experience all through the day, from the first thing in the morning,when while standing dripping wet, you have to separate the pretty fringes of the bath-towel which are entangled with one another, to the last thing at night, when the boot-jack, which, not being an ornamental object is put out of sight, has to be sought for.

SOCIAL BENEFICENCE. 405 "rhile the room, if filled with pictures and sculptures and vases and numerolis curiosities, loses its individuality, it may, when containing only a small nurnber of beautiful objec~s artistically arranged, become itself a work of art. Similarly rooted in an undue desire for display, goes the practice of accumulating needless appliances. Asa. typical instance may be named a silver butter-knife. It is an iIn plement utterly superfluous. There can be no pretence that there is anychemical action of the butter on steel; for a steel knife is used by each person to spread' it. There can be no pretence that a steel knife is not equally effective as a tool: indeed the butter-knife is lnechanically ill~ adapted for its purpose. It has no raison d' etre whatever, save to show the possession of money enough to purchase an appliance which society prescribes. With various. other dOlnestic superfluities it is the same. Needless original outlay and daily cost in cleaning, are entailed by useless articles which people buy lest silent criticisIns should be passed in their absence.

Social beneficence, then, enjoins efforts to diminish the sacrifice of use to appearance, and the accompanying expend iture of time, energy, and Inoney for· secondary ends to the neglect of primary ends. § 464. Endeavours to benefit fellow citizeD;s by improve ments in modes of life, have yet another sphere of action. There are various prescribed habits, and various social observ ances, which should be resisted, and nlodified or abolished, in the interests of men at large. Already philanthropy in some cases recognizes this duty. We have, for example, the efforts made to check extravagant outlays for funerals. It is seen that the demands of custOlll weigh heavily on necessitous families: perhaps seriously diminishing the sUlall sum left to meet the imulediate ,vants of a widow and her children. Lack of a certain .display is thought to imply 'lack of 406 THE ETHICS· OF SOCIAL LIFE. respect for the dead; and hence the peremptory need for disbursements which cannot be borne without suffering.

The evil is far more intense among some slightly civiIized peoples, as those of the Gold Coast, where, according to Beecham, "a funeral is usually absolute ruin to a poorfalnily." For discouraging lavish expen diture, even though among us it is far less, there are the further reasons that, as the costly burial rites are equally accorded to the bad and to the good, they fail to be signs of respect; and that were· they generally abandoned, no slight would be implied by the absence of them. Kindred reasons may be given for trying to moderate sundry wedding-customs. These have in SOlne places gone to extremes beyond any known in this part of the world; and have entailed astonishing lllischiefs. In one case alnong the partially civilized, if not in more, the l11arriage feast has become so ruinously costly to the bride's fan1ily, that female infanticide is practic~d as a remedy: daughters being put out of the way while infants, because of the expense they would one day ent~il if reared.