Bibliographical Essay

The indispensable, and still unchallenged, overall study for this period is the monumental four-volume work by Herbert L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the Eighteenth Century (1924–25). Also useful are the latter volumes of Charles M. Andrews’ four-volume The Colonial Period of American History (1934—38). A particularly useful text on colonial America is David Hawke’s The Colonial Experience (1966). Older but still valuable is Oliver P. Chitwood, A History of Colonial America (1st ed., 1931; 3rd ed., 1961).

The most notable advance in many years in the historiography of the first half of eighteenth-century America, is the discovery of the great extent and depth of the growth and spread of libertarian thought, influenced particularly by radical libertarian English writers during this period. The discovery was made by Professor Bernard Bailyn, particularly in his The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) and his The Origins of American Politics (1968). The Ideological Origins is an expansion of Bailyn’s first work on the subject, his “General Introduction” to Bernard Bailyn, ed., The Pamphlets of the American Revolution, vol. 1 (1965). An excellent selection from the most influential of the English libertarian writings, co-authored by John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, may be found in David L. Jacobson, ed., The English Libertarian Heritage (1965). The Jacobson volume contains selections from Gordon and Trenchard’s Cato’s Letters, their most influential essays; and from their essays in The Independent Whig, in behalf of religious liberty. Both series were published in the early 1720s. Jacobson’s “Introduction” is a useful survey of the life and work of Trenchard and Gordon. Bailyn’s findings were based on the pioneering and monumental work of Caroline Robbins, The Eighteenth Century Commonwealthman (1959), which “discovered” not only Trenchard and Gordon, but also the line of descent from Algernon Sidney and Locke down to the radical libertarians of the eighteenth century.

The libertarian influence of John Locke on American thought has long been known to historians. The definitive edition of Locke’s “Second Essay on Civil Government” is to be found in John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (1960). Locke’s devotion to private-property rights and the free market is demonstrated in C. B. Macpherson, The Theory of Possessive Individualism (1962). The influence of the theory of natural law in America is discussed in Benjamin F. Wright, American Interpretations of Natural Law (1931). For a rather more cautious view than Bailyn’s, see Lawrence Leder, Liberty and Authority: Early American Political Ideology, 1689–1763 (1968). The only work on deism in America in this period is Herbert M. Morais, Deism in Eighteenth Century America (1934). A detailed work on the Enlightenment background in Europe is Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation (2 vols., 1966, 1969). The influence of French ideas in America is traced in Howard Mumford Jones, America and French Culture, 1750–1848 (1927).

William W. Sweet’s Religion in Colonial America (1942) is a good overall survey of the topic. The classic study of the Quakers in this period is Rufus M. Jones, The Quakers in the American Colonies (1911); Sydney V. James, A People Among Peoples (1963), is a good modern supplement. The saga of Quaker abolition of slavery is set forth in Thomas E. Drake’s Quakers and Slavery in America (1950). Also see Arthur Zilversmit, The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North (1967). The famous Journal of the famed John Woolman, the leader of Quaker abolitionism, is available in paperback: The Journal of John Woolman (1961).

The renowned liberal Congregational cleric Jonathan Mayhew has at last found his biographer: Charles W. Akers, Called unto Liberty: A Life of Jonathan Mayhew, 1720–1766 (1964). Mayhew is also discussed in Max Savelle’s Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind (1948). The rise of liberal Arminianism and Unitarianism in New England is treated in Conrad Wright, The Beginnings of Unitarianism in America (1955).

There is still no overall history of the Great Awakening. Best is C. C. Goen, Revivalism and Separatism in New England, 1740–1800 (1962); also important is Edwin Scott Gaustad, The Great Awakening in New England (1957). Alan Heimert’s Religion and the American Mind: From the Great Awakening to the Revolution (1966) is a pro-Puritan overview; documents of the Great Awakening may be found in A. Heimert and P. Miller, eds., The Great Awakening: Documents (1967). Jonathan Edwards, the fanatical theoretician of the Great Awakening, has several biographers; a sympathetic emphasis on his ideas is Perry Miller, Jonathan Edwards (1949).

There are two indispensable books on the struggle of Americans against the threat of an Anglican bishop in the colonies: the classic by Arthur Lyon Cross, The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies (1902); and the newer Carl Bridenbaugh, Mitre and Sceptre: Transatlantic Faiths, Ideas, Personalities, and Politics, 1689–1775 (1962).

The classic work on freedom of the press in colonial Massachusetts is Clyde A. Duniway, Development of Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts (1906). On the Zenger case, see the study by Vincent Buranelli, The Trial of Peter Zenger (1957), and the documentary source by Zenger’s lawyer, James Alexander, A Brief Narrative of the Case and Trial of John Peter Zenger, ed. S. Katz (2d ed., 1972). Particularly important is the brilliant and hard-hitting revisionist work of Leonard Levy on the Zenger case and on the dubious extent of devotion to freedom of speech and press in colonial America; see Leonard W. Levy, “Did the Zenger Case Really Matter?” William and Mary Quarterly (1960); and Levy, Legacy of Suppression: Freedom of Speech and Press in Early American History (1960). Valuable documents are reprinted and discussed in Leonard W. Levy, ed., Freedom of the Press from Zenger to Jefferson (1966). Selections from the leading newspaper champion of religious liberty and freedom of the press are now available, in William Livingston et al., The Independent Reflector, ed. Milton M. Klein (1963). The great reference work on colonial American newspapers is Clarence S. Brigham, History and Bibliography of American Newspapers, 1690–1820 (2 vols., 1947).

A good survey of the cultural history of the American colonies is Louis B. Wright, The Cultural Life of the American Colonies, 1607–1763 (1957). A rich interpretive tapestry is woven in Howard Mumford Jones, O Strange New World: American Culture, the Formative Years (1964). See also Jones, Ideas in America (1944).

The most recent survey of the history of American immigration is Maldwyn Jones, American Immigration (1960), but it is too scanty to be useful. More serviceable is Marcus Lee Hansen, The Atlantic Migration, 1607–1860 (1940). The best work on the Ulster Scots is James G. Leyburn, The Scotch-Irish: A Social History (1962). Also useful is Wayland F. Dunaway, The Scotch-Irish of Colonial Pennsylvania (1944), for the colony where the Ulster Scots made the greatest impact. The saga of the Palatine Germans may be found in Walter A. Knittle, Early Eighteenth-Century Palatine Emigration (1937). The even more heartrending saga of the Acadians is treated in Arthur G. Doughty, The Acadian Exiles (1916), and in Oscar W. Winzerling, Acadian Odyssey (1955).

On labor and government in the colonies, Richard B. Morris, Government and Labor in Early America (1946), is thorough and virtually alone. Still useful, however, is Marcus W. Jernegan, The Laboring and Dependent Classes in Colonial America (1931). Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607–1776 (1947), is excellent and still the only major work on the subject. There are now two vitally important overall works on slavery and the Negro, David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1964); and Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (1968), though both are marred by errors in interpretation. Almon W. Lauber, Indian Slavery in Colonial Times Within the Present Limits of the United States (1913), is the classic work on the subject. Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (1943), is the only work on a neglected and important topic. There are also several useful articles on slave rebellions in New York: Kenneth Scott, “The Slave Insurrection in New York in 1712,” New York Historical Society Quarterly (1961); T. Wood Clarke, “The Negro Plot of 1741,” New York History (1944); and Ferenc M. Szasz, “The New York Slave Revolt of 1741: A Reexamination,” New York History (1967). See also Edgar J. McManus, A History of Negro Slavery in New York (1966), and the substantial work of Lorenzo J. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England (1942).

Land-grabbing and Indian conflicts were vital and intermingled aspects of the Western frontier in the eighteenth century. Two indispensable works on the Western land-grabs are Clarence W. Alvord, The Mississippi Valley in British Politics (2 vols., 1917), and Thomas Perkins Abernathy, The Western Lands and the American Revolution (1937), the early chapters of which are relevant to this volume. Nicholas B. Wainright’s masterful biography of George Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat (1959) is a vivid study of this adventurer and swindler so vital to frontier and Indian relations during midcentury. Bernhard Knollenberg’s George Washington: The Virginia Period, 1732–1755 (1964) is a much needed revisionist essay by a superb historian. Verner W. Crane, The Southern Frontier, 1670–1732 (1928), is excellent and indispensable on Indian fighting and other events on the Southern frontier during this period. See also John R. Alden, John Stuart and the Southern Colonial Frontier, 1754–75 (1944), and John A. Caruso, The Appalachian Frontier: America’s First Surge Westward (1959). Caruso’s The Southern Frontier (1963) is particularly good on Florida and Louisiana. Dale Van Every, Forth to the Wilderness: The First American Frontier, 1754–1774 (1961), is vivid and valuable.

Marshall Harris’s Origin of the Land Tenure System in the United States (1953) is definitive, as is Beverly W. Bond, The Quitrent System in the American Colonies (1919), on the unsuccessful attempts to collect quitrent from the recalcitrant American colonists. The best overall economic history of the colonial period is Edward C. Kirkland, A History of American Economic Life (4th ed., 1969).

The classic work on colonial agriculture has not been superseded: Percy W. Bidwell and John I. Falconer, History of Agriculture in the Northern United States, vol. 1 (1933). The same is true of the works on colonial industry by Victor S. Clark, History of Manufactures in the United States, vol. 1 (1929); and Rolla M. Tryon, Household Manufactures in the United States, 1640–1860 (1917). Valuable on colonial manufacturing as a threat to British industry is Curtis P. Nettels, “Menace of Colonial Manufacturing, 1690–1720,” New England Quarterly (1931). Specific industries are treated in Arthur Cecil Bining, British Regulation of the Colonial Iron Industry (1938); Bining, Pennsylvania Iron Manufacture in the Eighteenth Century (1938); and Arthur Harrison Cole, The American Wool Manufacture, vol. 1 (1926”). Also valuable is Carl Bridenbaugh, The Colonial Craftsman (1950). On various aspects of colonial commerce, see the useful works of Harold A. Innis, Fur Trade in Canada (rev. ed., 1956); and Richard Pares, Yankees and Creoles: Trade Between North America and the West Indies Before the American Revolution (1956). Arthur Pierce Middleton, Tobacco Coast: Maritime History of the Chesapeake Bay in the Colonial Era (1953), is an invaluable history. Howard M. Chapin, Privateering in King George’s War, 1739–1748 (1928), concentrates on an important topic, concerning which see also, in particular, Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America, 1743–1776 (1955).

Indispensable—and virtually alone—on the history of the post office is Wesley Everett Rich, The History of the United States Post Office to the Year 1829 (1924), which needs to be supplemented by the excellent study of the history of the British postal service by Ronald H. Coase, “The Postal Monopoly in Great Britain: An Historical Survey,” in J. K. Eastham, ed., Economic Essays in Commemoration of the Dundee School of Economics, 1931–1955 (1955).

Price statistics are scanty for this period, but excellent are Anne Bezanson et al., Prices in Colonial Pennsylvania (1935), and Arthur Harrison Cole, Wholesale Commodity Prices in the United States, 1700–1861, with Statistical Supplement (1938); see also George R. Taylor, “Wholesale Commodity Prices at Charleston, 1732–1791,” Journal of Economic and Business History (1932).

The history of money and banking in colonial America is in an unsatisfactory state. The problem, in general, is that the earlier works are economically sound but historically out of date, whereas the newer and historically superior writings are fatally marred by an acceptance of modern inflationist dogma. The only overall studies, flawed though they are by inflationary bias, are Richard A. Lester, Monetary Experiments: Early American and Recent Scandinavian (1939), and Curtis P. Nettels, Money Supply of the American Colonies Before 1720 (1934). Older but far sounder accounts, from the economic point of view, are Horace White, Money and Banking Illustrated by American History (1902), and Davis R. Dewey, Financial History of the United States (1936). A particularly hard-hitting critique of colonial inflationism is in Charles Jesse Bullock, Essays on the Monetary History of the United States (1900). Very old but magnificently sound on monetary economics is William M. Gouge, Short History of Paper Money and Banking in the United States, Including an Account of Provincial Continental Paper Money (1833). Specific colonies are treated in Kathryn L. Behrens, Paper Money in Maryland, 1727–1789 (1923); Clarence P. Gould, Money and Transportation in Maryland (1915); and, from a sound-money point of view, Donald L. Kemmerer, “Paper Money in New Jersey, 1668–1775,” New Jersey Historical Society, Proceedings (1956). E. James Ferguson, “Currency Finance: Colonial Monetary Practices,” William and Mary Quarterly (1953), is an inflationist survey. Particularly valuable is the notable revisionist work by George A. Billias, The Massachusetts Land Bankers of 1740 (1959), which demonstrates that the inflationary land-bank scheme was put forth and promoted by large merchants and landowners, and not, as older historians would have it, by a mass of impoverished debtors.

Andrew M. Davis, ed., Colonial Currency Reprints, 1682–1751 (4 vols., 1910–11), is a superb source collection of monetary thought and opinion in the colonies in the first half of the eighteenth century. Harry E. Miller, Banking Theories in the United States Before 1860 (1927), is excellent if sketchy. Joseph Dorfman’s monumental Economic Mind in American Civilization, 1606—1865, vol. 1 (1946), is indispensable for economic opinion in the colonies, but it does not do justice to the great hard-money theorist of the colonies, Dr. William Douglass, who, unfortunately, still lacks a biographer or a systematic study.

On British mercantilism and the American colonies, a good account is provided in the fourth volume of Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of American History (1938). The Board of Trade is examined in Oliver M. Dickerson, American Colonial Government, 1696–1765: A Study of the British Board of Trade (1912), and the influence of the British Treasury in Dora Mae Clark, The Rise of the British Treasury: Colonial Administration in the Eighteenth Century (1960). The effects of the Navigation Acts on the American colonies have given rise to considerable historical controversy. Lawrence A. Harper, The English Navigation Laws: A Seventeenth Century Experiment in Social Engineering (1939), is an apologia for the Navigation Acts; far sounder is Oliver M. Dickerson, The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution (1951). Particularly good on the issue is Curtis P. Nettels, “British Mercantilism and the Economic Development of the Thirteen Colonies,” Journal of Economic History (1952). On British naval-stores policy, see Joseph J. Malone, Pine Trees and Politics: Naval Stores and Forest Policy in Colonial New England, 1691–1775 (1964).

The classic work on British government in America is Leonard W. Labaree, Royal Government in America (1930). Bernard Bailyn, The Origins of American Politics (1968), is a brilliant explanation of the underlying reasons for the rise of the colonial Assemblies to power over the royal governors, despite the de jure powers of the latter, increasingly by midcentury. Bailyn also provides an illuminating contrast, in the course of this explanation, to Great Britain itself, where the king’s ministers managed to acquire working control over Parliament during this period, despite the letter’s de jure power. Jack P. Greene’s The Quest for Power: The Lower Houses of Assembly in the Southern Royal Colonies, 1689–1776 (1963) is a detailed institutional account of the rise of Assembly power in the Southern colonies.

Jack P. Greene, “An Uneasy Connection: An Analysis of the Pre-conditions of the American Revolution,” in S. Kurtz and J. Hutson, eds., Essays on the American Revolution (1973), provides new information on the abortive attempt of Halifax, at the Board of Trade in the early 1750s, to enforce on the colonies the network of mercantilist restrictions that had become a dead letter. Lawrence H. Gipson’s massive The British Empire Before the American Revolution (15 vols., 1936–70) provides many useful facts on the British Empire and British-American relations, but its interpretation is deeply flawed throughout by furnishing an elaborate apologia for the empire.

A classic treatment of New England town government is Roy H. Akagi, The Town Proprietors of the New England Colonies: A Study of Their Development, Organization, Activities, and Controversies, 1620–1770 (1924). Its class-struggle emphasis, however, particularly on land speculation, needs to be corrected by the brilliant revisionist work of Charles S. Grant, Democracy in the Connecticut Frontier Town of Kent (1961).

The decline of Puritan theocracy in Massachusetts is set forth in the brilliantly critical and uncompromising work of Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, The Puritan Oligarchy (1947). John A. Schutz, William Shirley: King’s Governor of Massachusetts (1961), is more than simply an indispensable, if overly sympathetic, biography of the most important royal governor in that colony (in the 1740s and early 1750s); he is also highly valuable on the frontier expansion and Indian and French relations of the period. The most important work on Massachusetts government in this period is Robert E. Brown, Middle-Class Democracy and Revolution in Massachusetts, 1691–1780 (1955), which demonstrates the democratic nature of representation in the Assembly. Brown’s celebration of an overall “democracy,” however, is crude and simplistic. A valuable discussion on problems with indentured servants in Massachusetts is Lawrence W. Towner, “A Fondness for Freedom: Servant Protest in Puritan Society,” William and Mary Quarterly(April 1962). A leading merchant family in Boston is discussed in W. T. Baxter, The House of Hancock: Business in Boston, 1724–75 (1945).

New Hampshire and Maine have at last found a modern historian in Charles E. Clark, Eastern Frontier: Settlement of Northern New England, 1610–1763 (1970); and Byron Fairchild, Messrs. William Pepperrell: Merchants at Piscataqua (1954), deals with one of the leading merchant families of the area.

Apart from the Great Awakening and the Grant study on Democracy in the Connecticut Frontier Town of Kent (1961), Connecticut remains without a satisfactory history. Oscar Zeichner’s Connecticut’s Years of Controversy, 1750–1776 (1949) deals briefly with the years just after 1750. The best work on the history of colonial Rhode Island is still Irving B. Richman, Rhode Island: Its Making and Its Meaning, vol. 2 (1902), which can be supplemented by Edward Field, ed., The State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (3 vols., 1902). The only book on the Narragansett Country is Edward Channing, The Narragansett Planters (1886), which needs to be supplemented by the only modern account, William D. Miller, “The Narragansett Planters,” American Antiquarian Society, Proceedings (1933).

Early eighteenth-century New York politics is admirably discussed in Lawrence H. Leder, Robert Livingston, 1654—1728, and the Politics of Colonial New York (1961). Dorothy R. Dillon, New York Triumvirate: William Livingston, John Morin Scott and William Smith, Jr. (1949), deals with the leaders of the rising opposition in the latter decades of the half-century. The bibliography of the Zenger case has been discussed above. Irving Mark’s Agrarian Conflicts in Colonial New York, 1711–1775 (1940) is an indispensable work on the problems of land monopoly in that colony. Donald L. Kemmerer, Path to Freedom (1940), provides a good history of eighteenth-century politics in New Jersey.

The best political history of Pennsylvania in this period is Theodore Thayer, Pennsylvania Politics and the Growth of Democracy, 1740–1776 (1954); see also Thayer, “The Quaker Party of Pennsylvania, 1755–1765,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (1947). Winifred T. Root’s Relations of Pennsylvania with the British Government, 1696–1765 (1912) is still not obsolete. The literature on Benjamin Franklin is, of course, enormous. The standard biography is Carl Van Doren, Benjamin Franklin (1938). Franklin’s Autobiography, ed. Labaree et al. (1964), is vital as a clue to his character. On Franklin’s political machinations, see John J. Zimmerman, “Benjamin Franklin and the Quaker Party, 1755–1756,” William and Mary Quarterly (1960), and Williams S. Hanna, Benjamin Franklin and Pennsylvania Politics (1964). There are several excellent biographies of important political figures of the colony: Roy N. Lokken, David Lloyd, Colonial Lawmaker (1959); Theodore Thayer, Israel Pemberton: King of the Quakers (1943); and Frederick B. Tolles, James Logan and the Culture of Provincial America (1957). Carl and Jessica Bridenbaugh, Rebels and Gentlemen: Philadelphia in the Age of Franklin (1942), is the standard cultural history of that city. Frederick B. Tolles, Meeting House and Counting House: The Quaker Merchants of Colonial Philadelphia, 1682–1763 (1948), is a fine economic and cultural study. War and the Quakers are discussed in Robert L. D. Davidson, War Comes to Quaker Pennsylvania, 1682–1756 (1957).

The best history of eighteenth-century Virginia is Richard L. Morton, Colonial Virginia (1960), vol. 2, Westward Expansion and Prelude to Revolution, 1710–1763 Robert E. and B. Katherine Brown’s Virginia, 1750–1786: Democracy or Aristocracy? (1964) is an absurd attempt to carry over their concept of “democracy” from Massachusetts to Virginia. Far sounder is the brilliant work of Charles S. Sydnor, Gentlemen Freeholders: Political Practices in Washington’s Virginia (1952). James H. Soltow’s “Scottish Traders in Virginia, 1750–1775,” Economic History Review (August 1959), is a superb revisionist article that lays to rest the myth that the Virginia planters were “exploited” by the London merchants.

The major history of colonial North Carolina is still Robert D. W. Connor, History of North Carolina (4 vols., 1919), vol. 1, Colonial and Revolutionary Periods, 1584–1783. Also useful is Samuel A. Ashe, The History of North Carolina, vol. 1 (1908). A more recent overall history of the colony is Hugh T. Lefler and Albert R. Newsome, North Carolina: History of a Southern State (1954). The classic history of South Carolina in the eighteenth century is Edward McCrady, The History of South Carolina Under the Royal Government, 1719–1776 (1899). The standard modern work is David D. Wallace, History of South Carolina, vol. 1 (1934); the most recent is M. Eugene Sirmans, Colonial South Carolina: A Political History, 1663–1763 (1966).

E. Merton Coulter, Georgia: A Short History (1947), is the standard, overall history of the colony and state. The modern revisionist view of the founding of Georgia began with Albert B. Saye, New Viewpoints in Georgia History (1943). See also Verner W. Crane, “Dr. Thomas Bray and the Charitable Colony Project, 1730,” William and Mary Quarterly (1962); and the excellent and hard-hitting chapter on early Georgia in Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Colonial Experience (1958).

The general history of England in this period is well discussed in J. H. Plumb, England in the Eighteenth Century (1950); Dorothy Marshall, Eighteenth-Century England (1962); John Carswell, From Revolution to Revolution: England 1688–1776 (1973); Arthur H. Buffinton, The Second Hundred Years War: 1689–1815 (1929); David Horn, Great Britain and Europe in the Eighteenth Century (1967); and Basil Williams, The Whig Supremacy, 1714–1760 (1962). The economic and financial aspects of English history are treated in Peter M. G. Dickson, The Financial Revolution in England, 1688–1756 (1967); and the opposition movements in Archibald S. Foord, His Majesty’s Opposition, 1714— 1830 (1964).

The importance of the Walpole era is highlighted in J. H. Plumb, Sir Robert Walpole (2 vols., 1956–60); H. T. Dickinson, Walpole and the Whig Supremacy (1973); and Norris A. Brisco, The Economic Policy of Robert Walpole (1967).

The specific policies and the politics of Pelham and Newcastle are treated in detail in John B. Owen, The Rise of the Pelhams (1957); John W. Wilkes, A Whig in Power: The Political Career of Henry Pelham (1964); Roy A. Kelch, Newcastle, A Duke Without Money: Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1693–1768 (1974); and Stanley N. Katz, Newcastle’s New York: Anglo-American Politics, 1732–1753 (1968). “Salutary neglect” is treated, although in a hostile fashion, in James A. Henretta, “Salutary Neglect”: Colonial Administration Under the Duke of Newcastle (1972). On the ideological influences behind salutary neglect, also see Herbert Butterfield, “Some Reflections on the Early Years of George III’s Reign,” Journal of British Studies (May 1965). On the fall of Newcastle and the rise of the Marquis of Rockingham as the leader of the Newcastle Whigs, Ross J. S. Hoffman, The Marquis: A Study of Lord Rockingham, 1730–1782 (1973), is definitive, but assumes considerable knowledge of British politics of the period. George Rudé, Wilkes and Liberty (1962), is excellent on John Wilkes and the Wilkite movement.

The rise of the new generation of English politicians in opposition to the Walpole-Pelham system of salutary neglect is detailed in Sir Lewis Bernstein Namier, England in the Age of the American Revolution (2d ed., 1961); and Namier and John Brooke, Charles Townshend (1964). The emergence of the Grenville clan in opposition to the Pelhamite policies of peace and laissez-faire is presented in the discussion of William Pitt and his brothers-in-law, Earl Temple and George Grenville, by Lewis M. Wiggin, The Faction of Cousins: A Political Account of the Grenvilles, 1773–1763 (1958); see also Erich Eyck, Pitt vs. Fox (1950), and especially Owen A. Sherrard, Lord Chatham: Pitt and the Seven Years’ War (1955). Pitt’s (Chatham’s) ideology and personality are discussed in John C. Long, Mr. Pitt and America’s Birthright (1940), and J. H. Plumb, Chatham (1965).

A brief discussion of the Anglo-French rivalry in this era is in Walter L. Dorn, Competition for Empire, 1740–1763 (1940), and a brief overall survey of the wars in America in Howard H. Peckham, Colonial Wars, 1689–1762 (1964). On the War of Jenkins’ Ear, see Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739–1763 (1936). The best history of the French and Indian War is Edward Pierce Hamilton, The French and Indian Wars: Battles and Forts in the Wilderness (1962). On the conquest of New France, see George M. Wrong, The Rise and Fall of New France (2 vols., 1928), for the history of New France, and Wrong, The Conquest of New France (1918), on the conquest by the British. The long-time consequences of British conquest are discussed by John C. Rule, “The Old Regime in America: A Review of Recent Interpretations of France in America.” William and Mary Quarterly (October 1962).